Exosomes are divided into natural exosomes and designed exosomes based on whether they have been artificially modified. Subsequently, natural exosomes are divided into animal exosomes and plant exosomes. Because exosomes are produced under normal and tumoral conditions, animal exosomes in turn divide into normal exosomes and tumor exosomes. These electric vehicle subtypes are primarily classified based on their biogenesis, but they can also be defined by their variable size, load or cell source.
Apoptotic bodies, formed by cells undergoing apoptosis, are large vesicles (1 to 5 μm in diameter) characterized by the externalization of phosphatidylserine and may contain fragmented DNA. On the other hand, microvesicles, between 100 and 1000 nm in diameter, are vesicles derived from the plasma membrane formed by budding or blistering in the plasma membrane of the plasma membrane (figure). Conversely, exosomes are produced through a complex process that accumulates in the exocytosis of multivesicular bodies (MVB), releasing 30 to 150 nm exosomes into the extracellular space (figure). Exosomes are rich in nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins, and are involved in several physiological processes and physiopathological.
The proteins on the surface of their membranes serve as biomarkers for multiple diseases. For this reason, exosomes are involved in diagnostic and prognostic processes. In addition, they are involved in a variety of biological processes, such as intercellular communication, signal transduction, and the control of the immune response. In addition, exosomes can originate from several groups of cells and their content and functions vary depending on its origin.
Innovative treatments are being developed based on the diverse therapeutic properties of exosomes. Because of their diversity in structure and content, many methods have been developed for the isolation and characterization of exosomes. This review covers the biogenesis of exosomes, their content, the cell types from which they originate and their effects on diseases, as well as methods of isolation and characterization, diagnosis and treatment approaches. The purpose of this review is not only to present the different types of extracellular vesicles, but also to summarize their differences and similarities and to analyze the different methods of isolating and analyzing exosomes that are currently in use.
With the understanding that exosomes play an important role in disease pathologies and that regulatory molecules are transferred between cells, the idea that these nanovesicles can also be used in the diagnosis of the disease has gained importance. During the extrusion process, the exosomal membrane ruptures and mixes violently with therapeutic agents. The lysate is then eluted from the microfluidic chip and the biomarkers of interest can be analyzed regardless of whether or not the biomarker is contained within the vesicles or on the surface of the exosomal vesicle. For doctors and consumers interested in exosome-based therapies, it is essential to ask key questions to exosome providers.
In the next part, the applications of the targeted exosome delivery system will be explained primarily from the perspective of drug loading and surface modification. Regardless of their clinical indication, exosomes and their use must comply with good manufacturing practices (GMP). Microvesicles are secreted directly from the plasma membrane, the apoptotic bodies come from a cell undergoing apoptosis and exosomes are secreted through a complex process involving the endosome and ending in the exocytosis of multivesicular bodies that release exosomes of 30 to 150 nm into the extracellular space. In addition, exosomes carry different peptides to attack specific cells, providing a strategy for building a more specific drug delivery mechanism. While these additives can improve the immediate outcome of a treatment, it is essential to differentiate the effects of the exosomes themselves from those of the additional functional ingredients.
First, modifying the surface of exosomes cannot change the structure or molecules of the surface of exosomes, whereas chemically linked target peptides have the potential to alter the structure of the surface of exosomes. For example, smaller exosomes can cross biological barriers more efficiently, while spherical exosomes can be more easily taken up by cells. Of the 420 exosomal drugs that are in the clinical development phase, more than 65% of the products are in the initial phase (from preclinical phase to discovery) and not yet have been presented by U. The freeze-thaw cycle is a physical and chemical process that simply mixes exosomes with drugs and is frozen at -80° C or liquid nitrogen, and then thawed at room temperature.
The anthocyanin-laden exosomes in berries have a good inhibitory activity against ovarian cancer cell proliferation.
